Hawaii
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State flag
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HAWAII,
Pacific state of the U.S. It consists mainly of the Hawaiian
Islands, an archipelago near the geographic center of the North
Pacific Ocean, and other islets unrelated geographically to the archipelago;
in all, the state comprises 8 main islands and more than 120 islets, reefs, and shoals. The major islands in order of size are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai,
Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe.
Hawaii entered the Union on Aug. 21, 1959, as the 50th state.
Hawaii’s economy was long dominated by plantation agriculture
and military spending. As agriculture has declined in importance,
tourism has become the dominant economic sector. The name of the state is taken
from the island of Hawaii and is a Polynesian word or name of unknown
meaning. In the 19th century the name was extended to the entire
archipelago. Hawaii is called the Aloha State.
| HAWAII STATE FACTS |
| DATE OF STATEHOOD: |
August 21, 1959; 50th state |
| CAPITAL: |
Honolulu |
| MOTTO: |
Ua mau ke ea o ka aina i ka pono (The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness) |
| NICKNAME: |
Aloha State |
| STATE SONG: |
“Hawaii Ponoi” (Hawaii’s Own) (words by Kalakaua; music by Henri Berger) |
| STATE TREE: |
Kukui |
| STATE FLOWER: |
Hibiscus |
| STATE BIRD: |
Nene (Hawaiian goose) |
| POPULATION (2000 census): |
1,211,537; 42d among the states |
| AREA: |
28,311 sq km (10,931 sq mi); 43d largest state; includes 11,676 sq km (4508 sq mi) of inland water
|
| COASTLINE: |
1207 km (750 mi) |
| HIGHEST POINT: |
Mauna Kea, 4205 m (13,796 ft) |
| LOWEST POINT: |
Sea level, at the Pacific coast |
| ELECTORAL VOTES: |
4 |
| U.S. CONGRESS: |
2 senators; 2 representatives |
| GOVERNOR: |
Linda Lingle (Rep.)
Took office December 2002 |
Hawaii, with an area of 28,311 sq km (10,931 sq mi), is the
43d largest state in the U.S.; 14.7% of the land is owned
by the federal government. The islands of the state extend in a
2400-km (about 1490-mi) arc from E to W. Elevations range from sea
level to 4205 m (13,796 ft) at the peak of Mauna Kea, on Hawaii
Island. The state’s coastline is 1207 km (750 mi) long.
The eight main Hawaiian islands comprise the tops of one or more
shield volcanoes (those that form from quiet lava flows rather than
explosions), which rise from the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The
largest island, Hawaii (often called the Big Island), is formed from five volcanoes: Mauna Kea,
Mauna Loa, Hualalai, Kohala, and Kilauea. Both Mauna Loa and Kilauea
are active. Maui is made up of two shield volcanoes and a central
plain, the isthmus. The larger of the volcanoes is Haleakala; the
smaller is the more heavily eroded West Maui Mt., the highest peak
of which is Puu Kukui (1764 m /5788 ft). Oahu has two heavily eroded shield volcanoes,
which form the Koolau and Waianae mountain ranges. Between the two
ranges lies a central plateau, on which sugar and pineapple are
planted. Honolulu lies on a coral plain at the SE end of the island. Prominent
features of Oahu’s landscape are Diamond Head and Punchbowl,
both tuff cones—volcanic features caused by explosive ash
eruptions.
Kauai consists of a single eroded volcanic shield. The island
has spectacular sea cliffs on its NW coast, the famed Na Pali Coast,
as well as a number of inland canyons, the most notable of which
is the spectacular Waimea Canyon. Molokai comprises a plateau in
the W and rugged mountains in the E. Jutting out from the precipitous
N coast of this island is the Kalaupapa Peninsula, historic site of a colony
for victims of leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and still home to many Hansen's disease survivors. Lanai is a single shield volcano with a central plateau on which was formerly located the world’s
largest pineapple plantation. Niihau consists of a plateau that
rises above coastal plains. Privately owned, it has a population
that is almost completely ethnic Hawaiian. Smallest of the eight
main islands is the barren and unpopulated Kahoolawe, formerly used as a
military bombing target. The small W islands are either coral atolls
or lava formations. Soils are generally present in coastal areas
and in areas between mountain ranges.
Despite generally heavy rainfall, most water percolates into
the porous lava and soils; in many places artesian wells tap subterranean
water supplies where they have collected on less porous rock layers.
The meager surface runoff forms no rivers or lakes of any consequence. The
longest river in Hawaii is Kaukonahua Stream on the island of Oahu,
and the largest natural lake is Halulu Lake on Niihau.
Hawaii has a tropical climate moderated by oceanic influences
and prevailing northeasterly trade winds. Temperatures vary little
from place to place except with elevation. The average annual temperature
of about 23.9° C (about 75° F) varies little from
summer to winter. The recorded temperature in the state has ranged
from –11.1° C (12° F) at Mauna Kea in
1979 to 37.8° C (100° F) at Pahala in 1931.
Unlike temperature, rainfall varies tremendously according
to location. Highest rainfall is usually at moderate elevations
on the windward (E) sides of islands and is due to the condensing
of moisture in the oceanic trade winds. Leeward (W) locations are
drier, because they are shielded by mountains from the moist winds.
The lowest rainfall in the state is at Puako on leeward Hawaii,
which averages 145 mm (5.7 in) a year. Mt. Waialeale on Kauai has
what is probably the world’s greatest annual rainfall,
averaging 12,344 mm (486 in). Severe storms are uncommon, but in
September 1992 Hurricane Iniki caused an estimated $1 billion
in damage, mostly on Kauai.
| HAWAII AVERAGE CLIMATE |
| |
Honolulu |
Hilo |
| Average January temperature range |
18.3° to 26.1° C |
65° to 79° F |
17.2° to 26.7° C |
63° to 80° F |
| Average July temperature range |
22.8° to 30.6° C |
73° to 87° F |
20° to 28.3° C |
68° to 83° F |
| Average annual temperature |
25° C |
77° F |
22.8° C |
73° F |
| Average annual precipitation |
584 mm |
23 in |
3404 mm |
134 in |
| Average annual snowfall |
0 |
0 |
| Mean number of days per year with appreciable precipitation |
102 |
282 |
| Average daily relative humidity |
63% |
75% |
| Mean number of clear days per year |
90 |
30 |
More than 2500 species of native plants and a large
number of introduced plants are found on the islands, including a great
variety of shrubs, trees, grasses, and flowering plants. The only
native mammals are the hoary bat, the monk seal, and the Polynesian
rat. The latter was introduced by early Polynesian settlers but has
evolved into a distinct subspecies. A variety of native birds are
found, but many species, such as the Hawaiian goose (nene), are
endangered. Many species of birds and domesticated mammals have been
introduced to the islands since the early 19th century. A study issued
in 2002 by the Nature Conservancy, an environmental organization
founded in the U.S. in 1951, found that numerous indigenous species in
Hawaii were at risk of extinction, and more than 200 were probably
already extinct.
According to the 2000 census, Hawaii had 1,211,537
inhabitants, an increase of 9.3% over 1990. The average population
density in 2000 was 72.8 people per sq km (188.6 per sq mi) of land
area. Hawaii had the most racially and ethnically diverse population of
any state in the U.S. Of those who reported only one race, whites made
up 24.3% of the population, the lowest proportion of any state, and
blacks made up 1.8%; Asians (predominantly Japanese and Filipinos) made
up 41.6%, the largest proportion in any state. There also were 3535
American Indians and Alaskan Natives and 113,539 Native Hawaiians and
other Pacific Islanders. Another 21.4% of the population reported being
of two or more races. A total of 87,699 persons, or 7.2%, reported
being of Hispanic origin. (Hispanics may be of any race.) The largest
communities were Honolulu, the capital; Hilo; Kailua; Kaneohe; and
Waipahu.
Hawaii also has a notable diversity of religious
groups, with Eastern religions forming significant minorities. Hawaii
is one of the most urbanized states in the U.S. In 1990, about 89% of
the people of Hawaii lived in areas defined as urban, and the rest
lived in rural areas.
| POPULATION OF HAWAII SINCE 1900 |
| Year of Census |
Population |
Classified As Urban |
| 1900 |
154,000 |
25% |
| 1910 |
192,000 |
31% |
| 1920 |
256,000 |
36% |
| 1930 |
368,000 |
54% |
| 1940 |
423,000 |
62% |
| 1950 |
500,000 |
69% |
| 1960 |
633,000 |
76% |
| 1980 |
965,000 |
87% |
| 1990 |
1,108,229 |
89% |
| 2000 |
1,211,537 |
-- |
| POPULATION OF TEN LARGEST COMMUNITIES IN
HAWAII* |
| |
2000 Census |
1990 Census |
| Honolulu |
371,657 |
365,272 |
| Hilo |
40,759 |
37,808 |
| Kailua |
36,513 |
36,818 |
| Kaneohe |
34,970 |
35,448 |
| Waipahu |
33,108 |
31,435 |
| Pearl City |
30,976 |
30,993 |
| Waimalu |
29,371 |
29,967 |
| Mililani Town |
28,608 |
29,359 |
| Kahului |
20,146 |
16,889 |
| Kihei |
16,749 |
11,107 |
| Hawaii has no incorporated places; population counts refer to areas defined at each census |
Hawaii is known for its distinct blend of cultural heritages,
and the range of the state’s cultural institutions reflects
this diversity.
American missionaries established an educational system
in Hawaii in 1820, and in 1840 King Kamehameha (1813?-54) set up the
island's first public school system. As of 2000, Hawaii had 183,500
students enrolled in public schools; private school enrollment exceeded
36,000 annually in the late 1990s. In the same period Hawaii had 20
degree-granting institutions of higher education, with a combined
enrollment of about 62,000 students. Among the most notable were the
University of Hawaii (1907), with its main campuses at Honolulu and
Hilo; Hawaii Pacific University (1965), in Honolulu; Chaminade
University of Honolulu (1955), in Honolulu; and Brigham Young
University Hawaii Campus (1955), in Laie on Oahu.
Hawaii's museums contain some of the finest collections
of Polynesian ethnology and natural history in the world. Among the
most noteworthy are the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, the oldest museum
in Hawaii, which opened in Honolulu in 1889, and the Kauai Museum
(1960), in Lihue. Honolulu is also the home of the Honolulu Academy of
Arts (1922), with collections of both Western and Oriental art; the
Hawaii Opera Theatre; the Honolulu Symphony Orchestra; and the Hawaii
State Archives.
Many of Hawaii’s historical sites commemorate Hawaiian
monarchs and the islands’ early Polynesian heritage. The
Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park, in Honaunau,
was originally a sanctuary built about 1500; Iolani Palace, in Honolulu,
built between 1879 and 1882, was the royal residence of the last
two rulers of the Hawaiian Kingdom; King Kamehameha’s statue,
in Kapaau, was commissioned by the legislature in 1878. Another important site is the USS Arizona Memorial in Honolulu, recalling the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.
Hawaii's mild, semitropical climate, long coastline,
and beautiful mountains make it ideal for such outdoor activities as
surfing, swimming, hiking, boating, golf, tennis, diving, and camping.
International surfing competitions are held at Makaha on Oahu. Aloha
Stadium in metropolitan Honolulu is the site of the annual Pro Bowl
All-Star football game as well as the collegiate Hawaii Bowl.
Hawaii's first radio stations, KDYX and KGU, both in
Honolulu, were licensed in 1922. KGMB-TV, the first commercial
television station, began operation in 1952 in Honolulu. As of 2000,
Hawaii had 76 radio stations and 25 television stations; cable and
satellite television services were also accessible. At that time, about
52 percent of Hawaii households had personal computers, and 43 percent
had access to the Internet. The
Sandwich Island Gazette
, initially published in Honolulu in 1836, was the first
English-language newspaper printed in Hawaii. In the late 1990s Hawaii
had six daily newspapers, with a total circulation of about 224,000.
Two influential dailies are the
Honolulu Advertiser
and the
Honolulu Star-Bulletin.
Hawaii is governed under a constitution adopted in 1950 and
put into effect in 1959, as amended. An amendment to the constitution
may be proposed by the legislature or by constitutional convention,
and requires approval by a majority of those voting on the amendment,
who must also represent a legally specified percentage of the electorate.
The chief executive of Hawaii is a governor who is
popularly elected to a 4-year term. A governor may serve two
consecutive terms, but must wait four years before being eligible for
the position again. The same stipulations apply to the lieutenant
governor, who succeeds the governor should the latter resign, die, or
be removed from office. Other administrative officials include the
state board of education, with 13 elected members and one nonvoting
student representative.
The bicameral Hawaii legislature comprises a senate and a
house of representatives. The 25 members of the senate are elected
to 4-year terms; the 51 members of the house are elected to 2-year
terms.
Hawaii's highest court, the supreme court, is made up
of 5 justices. The intermediate appellate court also has 5 judges; the
major trial courts are the circuit courts. Justices of all these courts
are appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, to
10-year terms. Other courts include district courts, family courts, a
land court, and a tax appeal court.
In the early 2000s, Hawaii had four counties governed
by popularly elected mayors and county council members. Hawaii is the
only state with no incorporated municipalities or equivalent form of
local government.
Hawaii elects two senators and two representatives to the U.S.
Congress. The state has four electoral votes in presidential elections.
Republican candidates usually dominated in elections in
Hawaii until the late 1950s. Since then, Hawaii has generally been in
the Democratic column in presidential elections, and Democrats have
held most local offices. Influential political figures in recent
decades have included two well known Democrats: Daniel K. Inouye (1924-
), who has represented the state in the U.S. Senate since 1963, and
Patsy Mink (1927-2002), a longtime member of the U.S. House of
Representatives (1965-77, 1990-2002).
Following the arrival in Hawaii in 1778 of the British explorer
and navigator James Cook, the islands’ traditional subsistence
economy evolved to one based on trade in sandalwood and the provision
of foodstuffs to visiting ships. The sugar industry was established
in 1835 and grew greatly in importance during the next several decades;
it was soon accompanied by the growth of the pineapple industry.
From 1900, when Hawaii became a U.S. territory, military activities
became increasingly important. During World War II the islands served
as the chief base for U.S. military forces in the Pacific. Tourism
has grown dramatically since the 1950s. By the close of the 1990s, plantation
agriculture played a diminishing role in Hawaii’s economy,
which was dominated by government and service industries.
| HAWAII STATE ECONOMY |
| STATE BUDGET |
|
| General revenue |
$5.6 billion |
| General expenditure |
$5.7 billion |
| Accumulated debt |
$5.4 billion |
 |
| STATE AND LOCAL TAXES, PER CAPITA |
$3303 |
| PERSONAL INCOME, PER CAPITA |
$27,819 |
| POPULATION BELOW POVERTY LEVEL |
10.9% |
| ASSETS, INSURED COMMERCIAL BANKS (8) |
$23.5 billion |
|
| EMPLOYEES ON NONFARM PAYROLLS |
559,400 |
| Employed in services |
33% |
| Employed in wholesale and retail trade |
25% |
| Employed in government |
21% |
| Employed in manufacturing, mining, and construction |
7% |
| Employed in finance, insurance, and real estate |
6% |
| Employed in transportation and other occupations |
8% |
|
| MAJOR INDUSTRIES |
% CONTRIBUTED TO GSP* |
| Private service-producing industries |
60% |
| Government |
22% |
| Transportation, communications, and public utilities |
10% |
| Manufacturing and construction |
7% |
| Agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining |
1% |
Gross State Product = total value of goods and services produced in a year.
Sources: U.S. government publications. Based on most recent data available as of 2002. |
| PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS OF HAWAII |
|
Quantity Produced |
Value |
| FARM PRODUCTS |
|
$530 million |
|
| CROPS |
|
$443 million |
| Pineapples |
321,000 metric tons |
$102 million |
| Greenhouse and nursery products |
-- |
$82 million |
| Sugarcane |
2.4 million metric tons |
$82 million |
| Macadamia nuts |
22,000 metric tons |
$30 million |
| Coffee |
4100 metric tons |
$21 million |
| Papayas |
24,000 metric tons |
$16 million |
| Bananas |
13,000 metric tons |
$10 million |
|
| LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS |
|
$87 million |
| Dairy products |
-- |
$28 million |
| Cattle and calves |
12,000 metric tons |
$19 million |
| Eggs, chicken |
143 million |
$11 million |
|
| MINERALS |
|
$91 million |
| Stone, crushed |
6 million metric tons |
$58 million |
| Cement |
283,000 metric tons |
$27 million |
| Sand, gravel |
500,000 metric tons |
$6 million |
|
| FISHING |
14,800 metric tons |
$68 million |
|
| |
|
Annual Payroll |
| MANUFACTURING |
|
$403 million |
| Food |
|
$147 million |
| Printing and related activities |
|
$41 million |
| Apparel |
|
$35 million |
| Nonmetallic mineral products |
|
$32 million |
| Beverages and tobacco products |
|
$16 million |
| Fabricated metal products |
|
$15 million |
|
| OTHER |
|
|
| Government |
|
$4.7 billion |
| Health care and social assistance |
|
$1.7 billion |
| Accommodations and food services |
|
$1.6 billion |
| Retail trade |
|
$1.3 billion |
| Finance, insurance, and real estate |
|
$1.2 billion |
| Transportation, warehousing, and utilities |
|
$917 million |
| Professional, scientific, and technical services |
|
$738 million |
| Sources: U.S. government publications. Based on most recent data available as of 2002. |
Farming now accounts for less than 1% of the annual
gross state product in Hawaii. The state has some 5700 farms, which
average 106 ha (263 acres) in size. Crops account for about 85% of
yearly agricultural income. The leading traditional crops, sugarcane
and pineapple, are grown on large plantations. Sugarcane is grown on
the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Kauai. Pineapple growing,
formerly a major industry on Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, has
declined in significance, and diversified farming is becoming
increasingly important. Fruits and vegetables are grown for local
consumption, and greenhouse and nursery products, papayas, macadamia
nuts, and coffee are grown for export. The last-named is grown in the
Kona district of Hawaii Island and is the only coffee grown in the U.S.
Cattle are raised on several islands, but livestock products account
for only about 15% of farm income. Most food items must be imported,
since local growers cannot supply the state's food needs.
The annual income from the fishing industry is
relatively small. A major share of the catch is tuna; skipjack and
yellowfin tuna are the most important varieties. Numerous species are
caught for local consumption. In the late 1990s the state had about 100
small- and medium-sized aquaculture operations, harvesting finfish,
shellfish, and algae.
The mining industry accounts for a very small
percentage of the annual gross state product. Crushed stone is the
principal mineral product. Cement, sand and gravel, and pumice are also
produced.
Enterprises engaged in manufacturing account for less
than 3% of the annual gross state product. Employment in manufacturing
declined during the 1990s and stood at only 17,300 jobs when 2000
ended. The principal industries are food processing (especially the
production of raw sugar and canned fruits and juices), printing and
publishing, and the manufacture of clothing and textile products.
Petroleum is refined for the local market, but processed foods and
textile products are sold locally and exported to the mainland U.S. and
to foreign markets. Other industries include the manufacture of
chemicals, plastics and rubber products, nonmetallic mineral items,
fabricated metals, furniture, and transportation equipment.
The tourist industry is by far the most important
sector of Hawaii's economy. Each year some 7 million visitors produce
more than $10 billion for the economy. Nearly 60 percent of the
visitors come from the U.S. mainland, and about 25 percent come from
Japan.
Tourists are attracted to Hawaii because of its
year-round pleasant climate, its spectacular scenery of beaches and
volcanoes, and its multiethnic culture. The main resort area is
Waikiki, on Oahu, where most of the hotels are located, and where the
beach is world famous. The islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai also have
important visitor areas, and tourism is also developing on Molokai.
Among the most popular areas administered by the National Park Service
are Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, on Hawaii, and
Haleakala National Park, on Maui. Hawaii also maintains
a system of more than 50 state parks and recreation areas.
Water transportation is vital to Hawaii. Modern
container ships provide the islands with consumer goods, and take the
state's exports--chiefly raw sugar and canned fruits and juices--to the
mainland. Modern ports are located at Honolulu and Barbers Point, on
Oahu; the latter is an oil terminal. Smaller ports include Hilo, on
Hawaii, and Kahului, on Maui. Molokai and Lanai have barge harbors for
receipt and shipment of interisland cargoes.
The state has a total of about 6890 km (about 4280 mi)
of federal, state, and local roads, including 555 km (345 mi) of
national highway system roads. Several local airlines provide both
passenger and cargo transportation interisland; in all, Hawaii has 30
airports and 16 heliports. Honolulu International Airport is one of the
busiest in the nation; of the other major islands, only Niihau and
Kahoolawe are without commercial airports. Hawaii has no public
railroads.
Electricity-generating plants in Hawaii have a total
capacity of about 2.3 million kw and produce some 10.7 billion kwh of
electric power each year. Imported oil and coal are burned to meet
almost all the state's electrical energy needs, but geothermal sources,
sugarcane waste, and wind power are also employed. Solar energy to
provide hot water is widely used in the
state.
The Hawaiian people, whose ancestors originally came across
the ocean from Polynesia in the 1st millennium ad, developed
a tribal society in isolation, but their cultural ties to Polynesia
are obvious. Hawaiians clustered in villages along the islands’ seashores,
without any knowledge of the use of metal. The men fished, farmed,
and cooked. The Hawaiian diet was mostly fish, supplemented by pigs,
chickens, and dogs. The main crop was wetland taro—a starchy,
edible root grown in flooded fields. Taro was baked and then pounded
into a pasty substance called poi. The women reared the children,
made clothes, and wove mats from the palmlike leaves of the screw
pine. The Hawaiian population was divided into nobles, priests, and
commoners.
The Hawaiians worshiped four major gods and a host of minor
deities. Their places of worship, called heiaus, were
constructed from lava rock. The religious and social structure revolved
around the concept of kapu, known elsewhere in
Polynesia as taboo, which established prohibitive, or restrictive,
rules for the various segments of society and created a caste system.
Priests and rulers determined proper behavior patterns for the people.
Hawaii’s tribal society transmitted its legends and traditions
through songs, dances, chants, and stories.
The British explorer Capt. James Cook landed on Kauai in January
1778. He named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of his
patron, John Montagu, 4th earl of Sandwich (1718–92). (The
name later fell into disuse as English influence gave way to U.S.
domination.) After a voyage to the northern Pacific, Cook returned
to Hawaii to winter, but earlier friendly relations with the Hawaiians
had deteriorated, and Cook was killed during a punitive expedition
against them in 1779.
By 1790, only a dozen years after Cook’s arrival,
Westerners had settled throughout the islands. On Oahu, Europeans
of various nations lived near Honolulu’s splendid harbor,
while the Hawaiians resided in Waikiki. Influenced by these newcomers,
Hawaiian living and dietary habits changed dramatically in the late 18th
century; at the same time, new contagious diseases and alcoholism
decimated the ranks of the native inhabitants.
Between 1790 and 1810, the islands were united politically
under the leadership of a native king, Kamehameha I, whose five
successors—all bearing the name Kamehameha—ruled
from his death in 1819 until the end of the dynasty in 1872.
Beginning in 1819, the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions, founded by New England Congregationalists, sent
11 groups of missionaries to Hawaii. The Americans imposed their
life-style, morality, and religion throughout the islands, teaching
the Hawaiians that their traditional way of life was sinful. During
the first half of the 19th century, foreign whaling ships wintered
at Honolulu and Lahaina, bringing additional influences that threatened
the indigenous culture.
Two developments determined the kingdom’s fate—the
decline of the native population and the increasing importance of
sugar as an export crop. The first sustained sugar plantation was
begun at Koloa, Kauai, in 1835. Missionaries and their sons acquired
large landholdings, founding companies that still dominate the Hawaiian
sugar industry. The need for large numbers of field and mill hands
led the planters to import Chinese and Japanese workers.
Although the Kamehameha dynasty had generally been friendly
to settlers from the U.S., King Kalakaua (1836–91) and
Queen Liliuokalani (1838–1917) strove to reverse American
influence in the government and economy, hoping to return Hawaii
to the Hawaiians. At the same time, the islands experienced economic hardship
when the 1890 McKinley Tariff levied a duty on sugar. A Committee
on Safety, supported by U.S. Consul John L. Stevens (1820–95),
seized control of the kingdom on Jan. 17, 1893, and established
a provisional government, headed by Sanford B. Dole, the son of
an American missionary. Dole pressed for U.S. annexation of the
islands, but President Grover Cleveland’s administration
rejected the proposal. The provisional government then created the
Republic of Hawaii on July 4, 1894, with Dole as president.
In 1898, when Cleveland’s successor, William McKinley, called
for annexation, Congress agreed, and Hawaii was annexed by the U.S.
on Aug. 12, 1898. The territorial government was organized in 1900,
and Dole was the first governor. The territory was allowed one delegate
who could speak, but not vote, in the U.S. House of Representatives.
Although U.S. leaders wanted to Americanize the islands as
quickly as possible, U.S. laws did not always fit local conditions.
The Homestead Act of 1862 was but one example. Several presidents
hoped that mainland settlers would help in the Americanization process,
but no vast areas of unoccupied and usable public land were available
for newcomers as had been the case in the American West.
Both the economy and the government were dominated by five
companies, known as the Big Five, that had served as agents for
sugar plantations since the 19th century. The Big Five also controlled
banking and merchandising, were represented on one another’s
boards of directors, and were in charge of most public commissions.
Pearl Harbor, the keystone to America’s Pacific defense
after World War I, was attacked by the Japanese on Dec. 7, 1941,
bringing the U.S. into World War II. The next day Hawaii was placed
under martial law, and the army governed the territory until October
1944.
Before and after World War II, Hawaii’s residents
called for statehood. Congressional hearings were dominated by the
issue of the islands’ Japanese population. Prejudice against the
Japanese and the concern about Communist influence in Hawaiian labor
unions slowed the statehood campaign, but Congress finally made
Hawaii the 50th state in 1959. The last territorial governor, William
F. Quinn (1919–2006),
defeated the territorial delegate John A. Burns (1909–75)
to become the first state governor. In 1962, however, Burns was
elected to the first of three terms, and the influence of the Big
Five began to wane. In 1974 George Ariyoshi (1926– )
became the first American of Japanese descent to win election as governor
of a state.
Since the 1960s, plantation agriculture has declined in
importance, and tourism has become Hawaii's major industry; how to
accommodate the tourist boom while preserving the islands' natural
beauty was one of Hawaii's greatest challenges as the 1990s began.
Another challenge was posed by Hurricane Iniki, which devastated Kauai
in September 1992. The state's economy lagged during the remainder of
the decade, as foreign investment dwindled, federal military and
civilian employment dropped, and a decade-long recession in Japan
discouraged tourism from that country.
State and federal authorities in the 1990s focused on
the status of the more than 200,000 descendants of Hawaii's original
inhabitants; income, health, and education levels for these indigenous
Hawaiians are markedly lower than among the population at large. In
1993 the U.S. Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, a
joint resolution apologizing for the "illegal overthrow" of the
Hawaiian kingdom 100 years earlier. In a blow to advocates of native
Hawaiian rights, the U.S. Supreme Court in February 2000 invalidated a
state constitutional provision that had allowed only descendants of the
original Hawaiians to vote for the nine trustees of a state agency, the
Office of Hawaiian Affairs.
Another 1990s controversy involved the extension of
marriage rights to same-sex couples, which was upheld in several
Hawaiian state court rulings that drew nationwide attention. Homosexual
marriages were barred by the state legislature in 1994 and by more than
two-thirds of those voting in a statewide referendum four years later.
A legislative measure decriminalizing the possession and use of
marijuana, when recommended by a physician for specific
medicinal purposes, became law in June 2000.
In June 2006, President George W. Bush signed a proclamation creating the 362,000-sq-km (140,000-sq-mi) Northern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, which secures protected status for the marine ecosystem around the islands, supporting some 7000 marine species, one-fourth of them unique to that area. The newly established entity, which incudes several previously existing reserves, is now the world's largest protected marine area.