Oklahoma
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State flag
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OKLAHOMA,
one of the West South Central states of the U.S., bounded
on the N by Colorado and Kansas, on the E by Missouri and Arkansas,
on the S by Texas, and on the W by Texas and New Mexico. The Red
R. forms much of the S boundary.
Oklahoma is called the Sooner State, a reference to the settlers
who were here before the federal government officially opened the
land to settlement. It was admitted to the Union on Nov. 16, 1907,
as the 46th state. Oklahoma’s economy has traditionally
been dominated by agriculture and mining, but by the early 1990s,
service industries, government, and manufacturing had grown to become
the largest economic sectors. The name of the state is derived from
two Choctaw Indian words meaning “red people” and
was originally proposed by a Choctaw chief in the 1860s.
| OKLAHOMA STATE FACTS |
| DATE OF STATEHOOD: |
November 16, 1907; 46th state |
| CAPITAL: |
Oklahoma City |
| MOTTO: |
Labor omnia vincit (Labor conquers all things) |
| NICKNAME: |
Sooner State |
| STATE SONG: |
“Oklahoma!” (words by Oscar Hammerstein II; music by Richard Rodgers) |
| STATE TREE: |
Redbud |
| STATE FLOWER: |
Mistletoe |
| STATE BIRD: |
Scissor-tailed flycatcher |
| POPULATION (2000 census): |
3,450,654; 27th among the states |
| AREA: |
181,049 sq km (69,903 sq mi); 20th largest state;
includes 3171 sq km (1224 sq mi) of inland water |
| HIGHEST POINT: |
Black Mesa, 1516 m (4973 ft) |
| LOWEST POINT: |
88 m (289 ft), along the Little River |
| ELECTORAL VOTES: |
7 (as of the 2004 presidential election) |
| U.S. CONGRESS: |
2 senators; 5 representatives |
| GOVERNOR: |
Brad Henry (Dem.) Took office January 2003 |
Oklahoma, with an area of 181,049 sq km (69,903 sq mi), is
the 20th largest state in the U.S.; 2% of the land area
is owned by the federal government. The state is roughly rectangular
in shape with a narrow protruding section, the Panhandle, in the
NW; its extreme dimensions are about 370 km (about 230 mi) from
N to S and about 750 km (about 466 mi) from E to W. Elevations range
from 88 m (289 ft) along the Little R. in the SE corner of the state
to 1516 m (4973 ft) atop Black Mesa in the extreme NW. The approximate
mean elevation is 396 m (1300 ft).
Oklahoma encompasses a diversity of landscapes. In the
W, confined
almost entirely to the Panhandle, is the Great Plains region. Although
generally level, this region rises some 914 m (about 3000 ft) in
elevation from E to W. The central two-thirds of the state is occupied
by the Osage Plains. This is a gently rolling region, interrupted
only by the Wichita and Arbuckle mountains in the SW and the Gypsum
Hills in the W. Much of this region is underlain with sandstone and
shale, which has formed a reddish soil of moderate fertility.
In the NE corner of the state is the Ozark Plateau. In contrast
to the plains, this is a hilly region. Streams have cut deep valleys
in the limestone formations of the plateau and have formed steep
bluffs at the junction of the plateau and plains. To the S of the
Ozark Plateau is the Arkansas Valley, a region that incorporates
the valley of the Arkansas R. and the surrounding plains. This region
has fertile soils and is one of the state’s most important
agricultural areas. The Ouachita Mts., in the SE, constitute the
most rugged region of Oklahoma. The mountains are primarily sandstone
ridges, separated by narrow valleys. In the SE of the state, lying
along the Red R., is the West Gulf Coastal Plain, a relatively flat
area with fertile, sandy soils.
Oklahoma is divided into two major drainage systems.
The N and W two-thirds of the state are drained by the Arkansas R. and
its tributaries, including the Cimarron, Neosho, North Canadian, and
Canadian rivers. The S part of the state is drained by the Red
R. and its principal tributary, the Washita R. The natural lakes
of Oklahoma are small; numerous federal and state dam-building projects
have, however, created more than 200 artificial lakes, some of which
are extensive. Among the largest are Lake Eufaula in E central
Oklahoma;
Lake Texoma on the Texas-Oklahoma border; and in the NE, Lake O’ The
Cherokees, and Oologah, Keystone, and Gibson lakes.
The climate of Oklahoma is diverse, changing from a humid
subtropical regime in the SE to a semiarid continental climate in
the W. Daily and seasonal extremes of temperature are characteristic.
Summers are hot throughout the state; winters are frequently mild
but severe weather does occur, often without warning. The average
annual temperature ranges from 13.9° C (57° F)
in the W to 18.9° C (66° F) in the SE. The recorded
temperature has ranged most recently from –32.8° C
(–27° F) in 1930 to 48.9° C (120° F)
in 1943.
The annual precipitation decreases from a maximum of more
than 1270 mm (more than 50 in) in the SE to only 381 mm (15 in)
in the Panhandle. Rainfall is heaviest in late spring and early
summer. Powerful storms occur with relative frequency; Oklahoma
has more tornadoes per unit area than any other region in the U.S.
| OKLAHOMA AVERAGE CLIMATE |
| |
Oklahoma City |
Tulsa |
| Average January temperature range |
–3.3° to 8.9° C |
26° to 48° F |
–3.3° to 8.3° C |
26° to 47° F |
| Average July temperature range |
21.1° to 33.9° C |
70° to 93° F |
21.7° to 33.9° C |
71° to 93° F |
| Average annual temperature |
15.6° C |
60° F |
15.6° C |
60° F |
| Average annual precipitation |
787 mm |
31 in |
940 mm |
37 in |
| Average annual snowfall |
229 mm |
9 in |
229 mm |
9 in |
| Mean number of days per year with appreciable precipitation |
81 |
90 |
| Average daily relative humidity |
67% |
69% |
| Mean number of clear days per year |
141 |
127 |
Forests cover only about 16% of the total land area
of Oklahoma. The forests are located almost entirely in the relatively
moist E half of the state. Southern pine is the principal commercial
tree and is found primarily in the SE. Commercially valuable hardwoods
include walnut, pecan, hickory, elm, ash, and oak. The W half of
Oklahoma is a grassland containing a scattering of drought-resistant
trees, such as juniper, blackjack, post oak, redbud, and cottonwood.
In the extreme W and in the Panhandle, trees are confined to the
banks of watercourses.
Deer, otter, raccoon, mink, and squirrel inhabit the forested
regions. Rabbit, gopher, prairie dog, and coyote are common in the
grasslands. Birdlife is abundant in virtually all sections of the
state. Among the most common species are the meadowlark, mockingbird,
scissortail, robin, blue jay, cardinal, crow, and sparrow. The Great
Salt Plains in the N part of the state constitutes a major wildlife
refuge for ducks.
Oklahoma is rich in mineral resources, particularly fossil
fuels such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Petroleum and natural
gas are found in all sections of the state, but most coal is concentrated
in the NE and the Arkansas Valley. The state also has significant
deposits of high-grade granite, as well as gypsum, clays, iodine, and tripoli.
According to the 2000 census, Oklahoma had 3,450,654 inhabitants,
an increase of 9.7% over 1990. In 2000 the average population
density was 50.3 people per sq mi of land area; most of the population
was concentrated in the E half of the state. Whites made up 76.2% of
the population and blacks 7.6%. Oklahoma has the nation’s
largest population of American Indians, totaling 273,230 individuals,
or about 7.9% of the population. Among the largest of the
state’s many Indian groups are the Cherokee, Chickasaw,
Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. Additional population groups included
46,767 Asians and 2372 Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders.
(These figures do not include the 4.5% of the population
who reported more than one race.) A total of 179,304 perons, or
about 5.2%, reported being of Hispanic background. The
state’s two largest cities were Oklahoma City (the capital) and Tulsa. The next largest cities—Norman, Lawton, and Broken
Arrow—were considerably smaller.
According to the 1990 census, Baptists (32.6%) formed
the single largest religious group, followed by Methodists (9.2%) and Roman Catholics (8%). In 1990 approximately 68% of
all Oklahomans lived in areas defined as urban, and the rest lived
in rural areas.
| POPULATION OF OKLAHOMA SINCE 1890 |
| Year of Census |
Population |
Classified As Urban |
| 1890 |
259,000 |
4% |
| 1900 |
790,000 |
7% |
| 1910 |
1,657,000 |
19% |
| 1920 |
2,028,000 |
27% |
| 1940 |
2,336,000 |
38% |
| 1960 |
2,328,000 |
63% |
| 1970 |
2,559,000 |
67% |
| 1980 |
3,025,000 |
67% |
| 1990 |
3,145,585 |
68% |
| 2000 |
3,450,654 |
-- |
| POPULATION OF TEN LARGEST CITIES IN OKLAHOMA |
| |
2000 Census |
1990 Census |
| Oklahoma City |
506,132 |
444,719 |
| Tulsa |
393,049 |
367,302 |
| Norman |
95,694 |
80,071 |
| Lawton |
92,757 |
80,561 |
| Broken Arrow |
74,859 |
58,043 |
| Edmond |
68,315 |
52,315 |
| Midwest City |
54,088 |
52,267 |
| Enid |
47,045 |
45,309 |
| Moore |
41,138 |
40,318 |
| Stillwater |
39,065 |
36,676 |
Because Oklahoma is a relatively sparsely populated state,
many of its educational and cultural institutions are concentrated
in its major cities, particularly in Oklahoma City and Tulsa.
The first schools established in the territory were founded
in the 1820s by missionaries. Support for a public school system
was provided by a legislative act of 1906 that was confirmed by
the constitution of 1907. In the late 1980s Oklahoma had 1859 public
elementary and secondary schools with a combined annual enrollment
of about 420,900 elementary pupils and 157,600 secondary students. About
29,400 students attended private schools. There were 47 institutions
of higher education, with a total enrollment of about 175,900 students.
Among these schools were the University of Oklahoma, in Norman; Oklahoma
State University (1890), in Stillwater; Central State University
(1890), in Edmond; Southwestern Oklahoma State University (1901),
in Weatherford; Phillips University (1906), in Enid; the University
of Tulsa (1894) and Oral Roberts University (1965), in Tulsa; Oklahoma
City University (1904); Saint Gregory’s College (1875),
in Shawnee; and the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma (1908),
in Chickasha.
Many of the state’s museums exhibit collections of
historical material on the American Indian and the western pioneer.
Included among these are the Thomas Gilcrease Institute of American
History and Art and the Philbrook Art Center, both in Tulsa; the
Oklahoma Historical Society Museum and the Oklahoma Art Center,
both in Oklahoma City; and the Cherokee National Historical Society
museum, in Tahlequah. The University of Oklahoma at the Norman campus
includes the University of Oklahoma Museum of Art, featuring objects
and paintings from Europe and the Orient, and the Stovall Museum
of Science and History. Of interest also are the Tom Mix Museum,
in Dewey, and the National Cowboy Hall of Fame and Western Heritage
Center, in Oklahoma City.
The heritage of the Old West is commemorated in a
number of Oklahoma’s
historic sites, including Indian City U.S.A., a recreation of villages
typical of the Plains Indians, near Anadarko; the Fort Sill Military
Reservation and National Historic Landmark, built in 1869, near
Lawton; the Pawnee Bill Ranch, near Pawnee; and the Creek Council
House Museum, in Okmulgee. The Will Rogers Memorial, near Claremore,
and the Home of Sequoyah, commemorates the creator of the Cherokee
alphabet, near Sallisaw.
Oklahoma’s lakes, ponds, and rivers provide ample recreational
opportunities for swimming, fishing, and boating. In addition, ideal
conditions for hiking, climbing, and camping are found at such places
as Chickasaw National Recreation Area, Lake Texoma Recreation Area,
the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, and the Salt Plains National
Wildlife Refuge. Hunting and horseback riding are also popular.
In the early 1990s Oklahoma had 68 AM and 105 FM radiobroadcasting
stations and 28 television stations. The state’s first
radio station, WKY in Oklahoma City, was licensed in 1921. WKY-TV
in Oklahoma City and KOTV in Tulsa, Oklahoma’s first commercial
television stations, began operations in 1949. The Cherokee
Advocate, the state’s first newspaper, was initially published
in Tahlequah in 1844. In the early 1990s Oklahoma had 49 daily newspapers
with a total daily circulation of about 744,200 including the Daily
Oklahoman in Oklahoma City, and the Tulsa World, in Tulsa.
Oklahoma is governed under its original constitution, adopted
in 1907, as amended. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed
by initiative, a constitutional convention, or the state legislature.
To become effective, an amendment must be approved by a majority
of the persons voting on the issue in a general election.
The chief executive of Oklahoma is a governor, who is popularly
elected to a 4-year term and who may serve any number of terms but
not more than two in a row. The lieutenant governor, who succeeds
the governor should the latter resign, die, or be removed from office,
may be reelected to any number of 4-year terms. Other elected executive
officials include the attorney general, treasurer, auditor and inspector,
superintendent of public instruction, and commissioners of labor and insurance.
The bicameral Oklahoma legislature comprises a senate and
a house of representatives. The 48 members of the senate are elected
to 4-year terms, and the 101 members of the house are elected to
2-year terms.
The highest courts are the supreme court, with nine
justices, and the court of criminal appeals, with five justices. These
judges
are initially appointed by the governor, but later must run for
election (to a 6-year term) at the first general election following
12 months of service. The 12 judges of the intermediate court of
appeals are popularly elected to 6-year terms. At the district court
level Oklahoma has 71 judges, 77 associate judges, and 62 special
judges.
In the early 1990s Oklahoma had 77 counties and about 600 incorporated
cities and towns. Most counties are governed by a three-member board
of commissioners; most cities are run either by the mayor-council
or council-manager form of government.
Based on the 2000 census and effective with the election of
2002, Oklahoma elects two senators and five representatives to the
U.S. Congress. The state has seven electoral votes in presidential
elections.
In state and local politics, Oklahoma was, until the 1960s,
a stronghold of the Democratic party. Since that time Republican
candidates for governor and the U.S. Congress have been increasingly
successful, although the Democrats retain a large lead in voter
registration. Notable among state politicians was Carl Albert (1908–2000),
a Democrat, who served 30 years in the U.S. House of Representatives
(1947–77) and was Speaker of the House from 1971 until
his retirement. In presidential elections, Oklahoma, which was solidly
Democratic through the 1940s, has become one of the nation’s
most dependably Republican states.
Homesteaders, settling in Oklahoma in the late 19th century,
established an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. Cattle and crops,
particularly grains and cotton, were the state’s principal
products. The discovery of petroleum in the 1920s added a new dimension
to the economy, encouraging the growth of commercial activity and
related industry. Mineral and agricultural production remain central
to the state economy, and manufacturing is to a large extent based
on the processing of raw materials produced within Oklahoma. Other
important economic activities are government, wholesale and retail
trade, and services.
| OKLAHOMA STATE ECONOMY (early 1990s) |
| STATE BUDGET |
|
| General revenue |
$6.0 billion |
| General expenditure |
$5.6 billion |
| Accumulated debt |
$3.7 billion |
 |
| STATE AND LOCAL TAXES, PER CAPITA |
$1575 |
| PERSONAL INCOME, PER CAPITA |
$11,893 |
| POPULATION BELOW POVERTY LEVEL |
16.7% |
| ASSETS, INSURED COMMERCIAL BANKS (430) |
$26.3 billion |
|
| LABOR FORCE (CIVILIAN NONFARM) |
1,154,000 |
| Employed in wholesale and retail trade |
24% |
| Employed in government |
22% |
| Employed in services |
22% |
| Employed in manufacturing |
14% |
|
| MAJOR INDUSTRIES |
% CONTRIBUTED TO GSP* |
| Commercial, financial, and professional services |
46% |
| Manufacturing and construction |
18% |
| Government |
14% |
| Transportation, communications, and public utilities |
11% |
| Mining |
7% |
| Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries |
4% |
Gross State Product = total value of goods and services produced in a year.
Sources: U.S. government publications |
| PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS OF OKLAHOMA (early 1990s) |
|
Quantity Produced |
Value |
| FARM PRODUCTS |
|
$3.6 billion |
|
| CROPS |
|
$1.2 billion |
| Wheat |
5.5 million metric tons |
$534 million |
| Hay |
3.6 million metric tons |
$281 million |
| Cotton |
83,000 metric tons |
$121 million |
| Peanuts |
110,000 metric tons |
$97 million |
| Sorghum |
391,000 metric tons |
$33 million |
| Soybeans |
120,000 metric tons |
$24 million |
|
| LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS |
|
$2.4 billion |
| Cattle |
890,000 metric tons |
$1.8 billion |
| Chickens (broilers) |
245,000 metric tons |
$181 million |
| Milk |
553,000 metric tons |
$178 million |
| Eggs |
869 million |
$73 million |
| Hogs |
45,000 metric tons |
$58 million |
|
| MINERALS |
|
$6.0 billion |
| Natural gas |
61.9 billion cu m |
$3.5 billion |
| Petroleum |
118.0 million barrels |
$2.2 billion |
| Stone |
23.6 million metric tons |
$83 million |
| Coal |
1.6 million metric tons |
$49 million |
|
| |
|
Annual Payroll |
| MANUFACTURING |
|
$4.0 billion |
| Industrial machinery and equipment |
|
$631 million |
| Transportation equipment |
|
$588 million |
| Fabricated metal products |
|
$394 million |
| Electronic equipment |
|
$356 million |
| Rubber and plastics products |
|
$306 million |
| Food and kindred products |
|
$246 million |
| Stone, clay, and glass products |
|
$227 million |
| Printing and publishing |
|
$218 million |
| Instruments and related products |
|
$124 million |
| Primary metals |
|
$123 million |
| Petroleum and coal products |
|
$106 million |
| Paper and allied products |
|
$101 million |
|
| OTHER |
|
$20.1 billion |
| Government |
|
$6.7 billion |
| Services |
|
$4.3 billion |
| Retail trade |
|
$2.1 billion |
| Transportation, communications, and public utilities |
|
$1.8 billion |
| Wholesale trade |
|
$1.5 billion |
| Finance,insurance, and real estate |
|
$1.3 billion |
| Construction |
|
$773 million |
| Sources: U.S. government publications |
Farming accounts for 4% of the annual gross state
product in Oklahoma. The state has some 70,000 farms, which average
191 ha (471 acres) in size; most of the state’s smaller
farms are located in the SE. Livestock and livestock products make
up about two-thirds of Oklahoma’s yearly farm income. Beef
cattle are the state’s leading agricultural product. Cattle
feedlots and ranches are concentrated in the semiarid Panhandle and in the N part of the state. The raising of poultry and hogs
is largely limited to the E half of the state.
Crops account for the remaining one-third of Oklahoma’s
annual agricultural income. The leading crops are wheat, hay, cotton,
peanuts, sorghum, and soybeans. Wheat is grown mainly in the N and
SW parts of the state; cotton raising is concentrated in the SW.
In the more humid E part of Oklahoma, soybeans, pecans, corn, and
vegetables are grown.
The annual income from forestry in Oklahoma is relatively
small. Commercial forests, located primarily in the E, yield quantities
of shortleaf and loblolly pines, sweet gum, various oaks, cottonwood,
pecan, and walnut.
The mining industry accounts for 7% of the annual
gross state product in Oklahoma, and the state ranks among the nation’s
leading mineral producers. Natural gas and petroleum make up about
95% of the yearly mineral production by value. The state
is also a major supplier of gypsum and the nation’s sole
producer of iodine. Other minerals include coal, granite, and limestone.
Manufacturing enterprises account for 14% of the
annual gross state product and employ some 163,000 workers. The
yearly value added by manufacturing in the state exceeds $10
billion. The leading manufactures include industrial machinery,
transportation equipment, fabricated metal products, electronic
equipment, petrochemicals, and processed foods. The two major
industrial centers,
Oklahoma City and Tulsa, account for more than half the state’s
manufacturing employment. Tulsa, in particular, has experienced
rapid industrial growth since the 1960s.
Each year, several million out-of-state visitors spend a total
of more than $2.5 billion in Oklahoma. The Chickasaw National
Recreation Area is a popular tourist spot, as are some 57 state
parks. Oklahoma’s numerous reservoirs also furnish ample
recreation opportunities.
Tulsa and Oklahoma City are major hubs in a network of about 179,870
km (about 111,765 mi) of federal, state, and local roads. The total
includes six state-maintained turnpikes as well as 1300 km (808
mi) of interstate highways. Class I railroad companies provide service
on about 5260 km (about 3270 mi) of track.
The state’s major waterway, the McClellan-Kerr Navigation
System, provides E Oklahoma with access to the Gulf of Mexico by
way of the Verdigris, Arkansas, and Mississippi rivers. The principal
ports, Catoosa and Muskogee, have transfer facilities for grain,
coal, steel, fertilizer, and other commodities.
Of Oklahoma’s 88 heliports and 322 airports, the
two busiest are Tulsa International Airport and Will Rogers World
Airport (Oklahoma City).
Numerous oil and gas pipelines cross the state. Many of these
are gathering lines run to producing fields; some carry oil and
gas to other states.
Electricity generating plants in Oklahoma have a total capacity
of about 12.8 million kw and produce approximately 45.1 billion
kw of electricity per year. About 88% of the state’s electric
output is generated by plants making use of fossil fuels, especially
coal and natural gas; virtually all the remainder is produced by
gas turbines and hydroelectric facilities.
The Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
was the first European to enter Oklahoma, in 1541. French traders and
trappers visited the region in the 16th and 17th centuries.
In 1803, as a result of the Louisiana Purchase, all Oklahoma except
the Panhandle, the extreme western portion of the present state, became
a part of the U.S. In 1817 the federal government began sending
the large Indian populations of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Mississippi
to the region. Oklahoma was divided among the Five Civilized Nations,
consisting of the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole
Indian tribes. In 1834 the region was established as the Indian
Territory and the tribal authority of the Indian nations within
the territory was assured.
During the American Civil War, the Indians of the
territory,
many of whom owned slaves, sided with the Confederacy. After the
war, by a series of treaties from 1866 to 1883, the Indian nations
were forced to cede the western half of the territory to the U.S.
as a home for other Indian tribes. Great tracts of land still remained
unoccupied, and although whites were forbidden by law to settle on
these lands,
colonization schemes were developed by various groups; as a result,
President Rutherford B. Hayes
issued proclamations in 1879 and 1880
forbidding settlement in the territory. Violations occurred frequently,
and agitation for the opening of the lands to whites increased to
a point at which Congress in 1885 authorized the president to begin
negotiations with the Creek and Seminole tribes for the purpose
of opening the unoccupied tracts for settlement. The negotiations
were successfully concluded in 1889, and at noon on April 22 the
land was opened to the public. A race for the best lands and town
sites ensued as nearly 50,000 persons flooded the territory the
first day. Tent towns were laid out, farms sprang up, and the
population
of the area increased at an extraordinary rate.
On March 2, 1890, the federal government established the territory
of Oklahoma, which consisted of lands in the southern part of the
region and the western portion of the Indian Territory, in addition
to the Panhandle. Additional lands were opened for settlement up
to 1906. On Nov. 16, 1907, the two territories entered the Union
as the 46th state.
Until the mid-20th century Oklahoma’s economy seesawed
dramatically. While oil production became increasingly important,
farm prices fell until the demand for farm and fuel products during
World War I, and again in World War II, stabilized the economy.
The discovery of huge oil and gas deposits in the 1920s was offset
by the depression of the 1930s, complicated by drought and crop
failures. Starting in the 1950s, however, drastic soil-conservation and
flood-control measures were taken, and new industries ranging
from electronics and space equipment to plastics and mobile-home
manufacturing were introduced. Weakening oil and gas prices led
to a sharp downturn in Oklahoma’s economy during the late
1980s and early ’90s.
On April 19, 1995, a truck bomb explosion
destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City,
damaged about 350 other buildings, injured more than 400 people, and killed
168. Timothy J. McVeigh (1968–2001), a U.S. Army veteran
with anti-government beliefs, was convicted in June 1997 and sentenced to death
for conspiracy and murder in connection with the bombing ; he was executed four years later. In December, another federal jury convicted his co-conspirator,
Terry L. Nichols (1955– ),
of involuntary manslaughter but acquitted him of more serious charges; tried in state court in 2004, he was found guilty of 161 counts of murder, but in the punishment phase the jury was unable to reach the unanimous agreement required for imposition of the death penalty.
The Oklahoma City National Memorial was established in 1995; it
contains the Symbolic Memorial (built in 2000), the Memorial Center
(dedicated in 2001), and the Memorial Institute for the Prevention
of Terrorism.